Students seem extremely serious about their education in Vietnam. As in the past, they bring honor to their families with their success. Many cultures have exerted influence on the student in Vietnam, and methods have changed slowly. Though many Americans think our system is better, much can be learned from the earnestness of the Vietnamese student.
Through the help of the United States, the number of children in school throughout South Vietnam has been raised from 500,000 to on and one-half million in recent years.
This has occurred despite the influence of the Viet-Cong, who try to disrupt the education system and install their own. Even though the Viet-Cong have terrorized students in the past, the little scholars go on. An example of this is evident in that the Viet-Cong will often stop a bus load of children and tell them that if they see them on the bus going to school again, they will cut off on of their hands or make them deaf. After a few days, the students will usually go back to school. The Viet-Cong have frequently made their promise good by stopping the bus again, hacking off hands or ramming a piece of bamboo into their ears to rupture the eardrums.
Early History
of Education
in Vietnam
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The earliest students in Vietnam received most of their education from the Buddhist clergy. However, with the Chinese domination of the country, Vietnam in absorbed much of their educational system. This is especially shown in the early competitive examinations which were held to recruit high mandarinal officials. The first known examination of this type was held in 1075. With the beginning of these examinations, Confucian education replaced that formerly given by the Buddhist clergy.
During the latter part of the 11th century, a National College was established for the education of sons or royalty and other high officials. This marked the beginning of Confucian education in Vietnam. In 1252, the college was opened to students from varied backgrounds other than royal or official.
By the beginning of the 15th century, many Confucian type schools were in operation in leading centers, and education became the most cherished of ideals. Only those who passed the qualifying examinations for Mandarins had any hope of achieving state jobs or other honors. The scholar was looked up to and highly revered.
All levels of administration in Vietnam were run by Mandarins, who were chosen on the basis of their education alone, up until the time the French ruled Vietnam.
Technically, any person, no matter what his background, could study and take the competitive examinations and, if successful, could become a mandarin. In other words, it was supposed to be a very democratic system of selection enabling the true scholars, regardless of family position, to be promoted into administrative positions.
In actual practice, however, this theory did not hold up as there was interference in the examination process. Numerous references were required from local officials before a person could take the examinations. Persons who were engaged in menial labor, to include shoemakers, actors, etc., plus criminals were excluded from eligibility. In addition, their descendents for three generations were also prohibited from taking the examinations.
There were two branches of the Mandarinate. They were civil (literary) and military, each consisting of nine grades. The top three grades of each merged, and a single Mandarin could hold both titles. Traditionally, mandarins in the literary branch were afforded more prestige than those in the military branch. The literary examinations were different from the military ones; one gave more importance to intellectual qualities while the other tested physical aptitude. This trend was reversed to some extent during the reigns of Gia-Long and Minh-Mang who favored the military side.
How Vietnamese Men
Became Mandarins
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In order to become mandarins, the Vietnamese men had to pass special examinations. In the literary field, there were four large-scale examinations to be taken to reach the top of the Mandarinate. They were the provincial examinations, regional examinations, national competitive examinations, and the court examination.
PROVINCIAL EXAMINATIONS
Before taking the provincial examination, it was necessary for a student to pass four lower level literary tests administered by state-employed professors in the different districts. They chose those students that they thought might be successful in competing in the provincial competitions.
The provincial examinations took place twice yearly. Thousands of students would travel to open-air camps set up for the examinations. The army guarded the camps to prevent any outside help for students taking the exam. Each candidate set up a tent where he carried on his daily routine of sleeping, eating and working.
Four test sessions, each lasting 24 hours, were given at three to four-day intervals. Each test started at three a.m. when the student was given special paper and sent back to his tent where he wrote until the following midnight.
Excellent ability in the fields of interpretation, verse, composition, and philosophy were essential to the success of the candidate. Scholarships were awarded for further schooling for those doing well on the examinations. The students who excelled above the others were granted one-year exemptions from the armed forces and corvee (forced labor). Those with grades of "good" were exempted for six months. This sometimes caused problems for the local officials in meeting quotas for the armed forces and corvee. To alleviate this problem, the governor of a province often limited the number of competitors from his province by creating more difficult preliminary test.
REGIONAL EXAMINATIONS
These were normally held every three years. There was pre-screening of applicants for this examination with additional tests and numerous references required as to character, etc. before admission as a candidate.
Four tests were also administered in the regional examinations; however, these were much harder and longer than at the provincial level. Students passing three of the tests received the title of "Tu Tai" (bachelor) while those passing all four were designated "Cu Nhan" (licentiates). All other candidates failed, and those not passing at least two of the exams were the cause of reprimand to those who recommended them from the provinces.
The examinations were most competitive. An extreme example of this is that during the 19th century, there were usually 12,000 or more candidates in the country at each exam. Of these, only twelve to fifteen licentiate degrees and between 250-500 bachelor degrees were awarded.
Those receiving the lower bachelor degree were excused from military service and the corvee. They could compete in the next regional exams for the higher award, but if they did poorly, they would lose their bachelor’s degree. Candidates receiving the license were eligible for appointment as director of studies in a province or district and were allowed to take the national competitive examination for the doctoral degree.
THE NATIONAL COMPETITIVE EXAMINATION
Those holding the license were allowed to take this examination which was normally held at three-year intervals. In addition, exceptions were made for those persons from royalty or nobility who held only the bachelor’s degree if they had taken special qualifying examinations.
The emperor made up the questions for the examination and those students scoring the highest were eligible to take the court examination. Those scoring the second group were eligible to re-take the examination and were registered with the Ministry of Personnel and Interior for employment either as a prefect or assistant prefect.
COURT EXAMINATION
By this time, the number of candidates had been drastically reduced. The emperor personally conducted this examination, and only three of the highest ranking scholars were proclaimed doctors first class. The remainder of the candidates were awarded doctor’s degrees in lower classes. The three persons in the first class were entitled to appointments as provincial judicial officers. The others could secure positions in a ministry or prefecture.
French
Influence on
Education
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Before the French came, Mandarins administered Vietnam for approximate 2,000 years. The old-type Mandarin system practically dissolved as the French took over the government’s administration and converted it from a Confucian system to a Western-oriented one. Some Mandarins of the old society committed suicide; others rebelled or went into hiding. There were, according to some historical authorities, actual cases in which household servants became Mandarins in the French service and others bought their way in causing great dissatisfaction to the older Mandarins of the Confucian school. This is probably representative only of isolated cases.
In order to participate in the civil service under the French rule, the Vietnamese had to convert to the French system and were required to know the French language. In addition, they had to have a good facility with the new romanized version of their language instead of the traditional Chinese characters which had been in use for hundreds of years.
The French gradually improved their own system of awarding Mandarin degrees and sent many of the Vietnamese officials to France to study Western methods. Reforms were initiated doing away with much of the ritual formerly required by the emperors; retirement provisions and other more modern personnel practices were established; and the new Mandarin class was urged to use more initiative in their work.
Under the old traditional systems, education at the primary level was left to the discretion of communes and private families. Opportunity for higher education, as evidenced in the four examinations heretofore described, was awarded to those who could handle literary forms and styles, rather than just information. The written language was Chinese and the spoken language was Vietnamese. The old educational system placed emphasis on tradition, intellectual pursuits, and moral order.
The French allowed this to co-exist with their system for a while. After the beginning of 1900, the whole system was revised. An educational system of three levels was established; elementary, primary, and secondary education (au hoc, tieu hoc, and trung hoc). In addition, the use of Quoc Ngu, the romanized translation of the spoken language, was added to the curriculum. Emphasis was placed on rote memory, class discipline and other French educational methods.
Many new schools and colleges were established and French became the second language of importance to the students. A new school of Mandarins was established in Hanoi in 1912 with a complete overhaul of the former requirements. New emphasis was placed on the French systems. Graduates were appointed to lower administrative posts not held by French officials.
Vietnamese citizens living in the country were not always afforded the educational benefits of those living in the cities.
Schooling in
Recent Years
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The school systems have retained most of their French forms in Vietnam. Though the Confucian system is not very important anymore, and men no longer devote their entire lives to learning, the people still have inherited a strong desire for education and deem it very important.
In 1955, a new school system was established after the separation of the country in two parts. The north retained much of the French system with an emphasis on Marxism. The south also retained much of the French system, with an emphasis on nationalism. Vietnamese language, history, and literature are required studies in elementary and secondary schools in the south.
Whereas Vietnamese schools have undergone the influence of the Chinese and the French, they are now influenced by the Americans. A little bit has been salvaged from each culture, however.
The law in South Vietnam provides for free compulsory education for children over five years of age for the first three grades of primary school. Most of the pupils do not go beyond this compulsory three years. If he goes on, he will take an examination in his fifth year which, if passed, entitles him to a primary certificate.
The secondary school has a seven-year curriculum. In this school, there are two parts, four years and three more. At the end of four years, the student takes an exam. If he passes, he receives a secondary certificate. Few students go beyond this.
At this time, he can go to a vocational school or continue for the second cycle in which he has a choice of continuing the study of modern languages and Vietnamese classics or of taking up natural science, mathematics, or philosophy. Before this time, their education has been more general, much as in the American system.
After the second year of the senior cycle (sixth year of secondary school), another examination must be passed. The successful student receives the Baccalaureate I. At the completion of the third year of the senior cycle (seventh year), he may compete for the Baccalaureate II, which is necessary to enter the university system or advanced technical schools.
In addition to these public institutions, there are numerous private schools which have sprung up offering courses in English. It is not uncommon to see Vietnamese of all ages enrolled in one of these extra-curricula schools. Numerous Americans have taught in these schools in their off-duty time.
There are also private schools run by religious and organizational groups. Some are French. These have been closely administered in the past and must comply with South Vietnamese government standards. At the Chinese Free Pacific Institute in Cholon, for example, the Vietnamese language is taught, women instructors must not wear the Chinese dress, and the principal must be of Vietnamese citizenship. This has been relaxed somewhat since the coup d’etat of 1963.
Adult education is encouraged. Where possible, classes are held for adults in the provinces in the evenings in an attempt to raise the literacy rate which hovers around 30 per cent.
The Vietnamese-American Association has expanded considerably during its brief history in Vietnam. There are normally about 7,000 students enrolled in language courses and vocational fields. This association has begun to extend its activities into other cities in Vietnam besides Saigon. In the past, teachers have been mostly Americans, drawn from the official agency employees in their off-duty time and from families of Americans living in Vietnam. When the majority of American dependents were evacuated from Vietnam in February of 1965, an acute shortage of teachers resulted for the various English language schools, including the Vietnamese-American Association.
The desire to learn English is quite strong among the Vietnamese and is a good example of the Vietnamese and their strong desire to keep up with the changing times in their country.
UNIVERSITY TRAINING
Students possessing the Baccalaureate II and passing entrance examinations are entitled to enter a university in Vietnam. There are three available, Saigon University, University of Dalat, and Hue University.
The University of Saigon is the largest with a reported 17,000 students enrolled in 1965. A break-down of student enrollment showed: Law School 4,348; Science 3,966; Letters 3,496; Pharmacy 2,107; Medicine 1,294; Pedagogy 826; and Architecture 465. The figures may be slightly high, as it is not too uncommon to find one student registered and taking courses in more than one school, and there is little cross-checking between the faculties.
Each faculty is separate from the other and acts independently. Therefore, the education offered has been narrowly specialized with little benefit to general education. There is no such thing as required courses for all students in broad fields of science, mathematics, languages, etc. as we find in American colleges and universities.
Attendance in classes, for the most part, is not demanded. A student may study independently or obtain notes from other students and pass the examinations. Little outside reading is demanded and a student can take the professor’s notes, study the text and reasonably expect to pass. The student expects the teachers to be "all-knowing" and generally does not understand the directed research system which is popular in American universities, especially at the graduate level.
Examinations assume great importance in the Vietnamese educational system, with those coming at the end of the term determining whether students go on to the next course of instruction.
OVERSEAS TRAINING
Large numbers of students leave Vietnam for further study. The French sent students to their country during their rule in Vietnam, and many students continue to go there to further their education today. Now, the trend is for students to go to the United States. In addition to the hundreds of Vietnamese military men who have been trained in certain fields in the United States, numerous civilians have gone to the United States to study courses which are not available to them in their own country. Many families will suffer great sacrifices to send one of their children abroad. Often, in the past, students have been allowed to leave the country to study only at the whim of the government in power. This has been a deciding factor in just who is allowed to go, and perhaps some of the most deserving students have been denied this privilege. In the past, it was not unusual for a student’s family to pay large sums of money to facilitate getting a passport. I do not know the circumstances of this situation today, but hope that improvement has been made.
Communications in Vietnam can be both frustrating and fascinating. Prior to the arrival of the Americans, communications in the field of telephones and radio communication was very limited. American military programs including men and aid have helped to alleviate some of the main problems, but they are far from being completely solved.
TELEPHONES
One must maintain a good sense of humor when using the telephone in Vietnam. There are very few people who have telephones in their homes, because of inadequate lines and switching equipment, and the cost of telephone service is prohibitive. Americans in Vietnam find it hard to operate without telephone and have installed large numbers.
Getting into the military switchboard from a civilian number requires patience, fortitude, and even temper. The American switch in Saigon is named "Tiger". When on a military line and trying to call a civilian number, one must also go through Tiger. The lines seem to be forever busy, and you may well get someone who tells you, "no, this is not tiger, this is pussycat," which is just his way of letting you know that you have the wrong number. Other American switchboards in the country have animal names. They are hard to reach but are a vast improvement over the past when no systems were available at all.
The Vietnamese use their servants or messengers to take messages for them. As for those with telephones, the Bell System would shriek in horror at the telephone manners.
It is possible to call abroad from Vietnam. Calls have to be made at a certain time of day for different countries. Often, weather interferes with communications. It is best to make a reservation in advance to make a call. In addition to those calling at the PTT(government-owned post, telephone, and telegraph), long lines of Americans wait each morning at the radio station in Saigon where they often get better connections and service.
TELEGRAPH SERVICE
Available in South Vietnam’s major cities and for service abroad.
NEWSPAPERS
The Vietnamese must love to read newspapers because there are more papers published in Saigon for the number of people in the city, than any other city in the world. A few of these are distributed outside of the city.
Often, the coverage borders on the sensational side. Consequently, newspapers are often closed by the government. The people want a free press, but unfortunately, they do not have enough experience with freedom of the press to understand that responsibility is also required of journalists. This, of course, does not apply to all of the professional journalists, but mainly refers to those "fly by night" editors who frequently bring out new and sensational publications.
In some cases, the papers have been closed by the government for criticism of the government’s practices and policies. On the other hand, some of the presses closed have been infiltrated by the communists.
The Vietnamese like to read serial love stories, and poems, and no self-respecting newspaper could survive without ghost stories and horoscopes.
Two English language newspapers in South Vietnam are the Saigon Daily News and the Saigon Post.
RADIO
There was no television in Vietnam until February 7, 1966 when the Americans commenced operations of two channels; one in the Vietnamese language, and the other in English. Still, most of the Vietnamese people are served by radio. They like to hear sentimental music and love stories. Many of the broadcasters are women. The government operates the main stations. Reception is also clear from other nearby countries including the Philippines and North Vietnam. The Voice of America and Radio Hanoi both come in loud and clear.
There is an American station, Armed Forces Radio, in South Vietnam today. It is also popular with the Vietnamese who are studying English and those who like to listen to the latest music from America. The French have also had a station in Vietnam.
When someone hears the term, "Radio Catinat," they may think it is special radio station. In reality, it is gossip grape-vine which entwines the city of Saigon. It seems to be pin-pointed at Tu-Do Street, which was formerly called Catinat, and this is the reason for its name.
The street seems to be a home for those who stop and say to each other, "You tell me your rumor and I’ll tell you mine." Radio Catinat is often amazingly accurate as to what is happening in the government and other official circles. There seems to be nothing like Radio Catinat in the U.S.
Tu-Do is an interesting street in the heart of Saigon where people of different backgrounds and nationalities congregate in various sections. For instance, American journalists often meet at the Hotel Caravelle Bar. Other foreign press appear to like Brodards, a delightful air-conditioned restaurant, coffee-house, and ice-cream bar combined, further down the street. The French seem to prefer the Imperial Hotel. American GI’s congregate at the bars on Tu-Do, and women of all nationalities frequent the fancy shops. Indians have stores all along this street.
